Mindfulness

My journey with mindfulness started more than 20 years ago. I was a student at Cardiff University, pursuing my undergraduate degree in Religious and Theological Studies. The relationship between religious philosophy and day-to-day practice was then – and remains now – of deep interest to me.

From my reading around Buddhism, mindfulness appealed as a means to develop a greater sense of peace within myself, and in my relationship with the world around me. I would sit up in my room, overlooking Bute Park, cross-legged in front of a small picture of the Buddha, following each breath in and out as best I could.

This simple act of sitting, and of bringing my attention and awareness to my human experience, has had a profound impact on my life. For one, it has been a constant source of peace and direction that I have returned to again and again. And, in its own way, it has led me into meeting many very special people: friends, colleagues, and numerous others within the fields of education and contemplative practice.

I’m immensely grateful to my younger self that I was willing to experiment with mindfulness practice and adopt it into my everyday life. It is this gratitude that fuels my desire to keep deepening my understanding, including my PhD research.

Here, I would like to share a short, simple introduction to mindfulness practice, its connection to wellbeing research, and how it has been used in education, based on reading undertaken for my PhD application. It is not all-encompassing, and might occasionally fall short of the latest thinking on the matter, but it reflects my own exploration of this important area of study, and gives some sense of the purpose and direction of my research.

Mindfulness

To understand ‘mindfulness’, it can be useful to understand what we mean by ‘consciousness’. Consciousness can be understood in terms of two dimensions: awareness and attention. Awareness is what Brown and Ryan (2003, p1) refer to as the “background radar” of consciousness, which monitors our entire experience. In contrast, attention is a focussed conscious awareness; whereby some aspects of conscious experience are prioritized over others (Westen, 1999).

Training one’s awareness and attention are central to mindfulness practices, which emphasise a quality of awareness that is receptive and non-judgmental in nature, where one simply observes thoughts, emotions and sensations as they arise and pass, without either clinging to them or trying to push them away (Deikman, 1982).

Different kinds of mindfulness training have developed in clinical settings, such as Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), both of which use two of the main aspects of mindfulness practice: open monitoring and focussed attention (Brown et al., 2022).

Open Monitoring (OM) and Focussed Attention (FA) train one’s awareness and attention (Brown et al., 2022), though how attention is trained differs between the two aspects. OM trains the individual to focus on all experiences within their awareness, whereas FA trains them to focus on specific stimuli, such as the breath.

In addition to the above clinical programmes of mindfulness – many of which have developed from the work of Kabat-Zinn (1982 & 2017) – the Buddhist Satipatthana Sutta presents mindfulness (“sati”) not simply as relating to awareness and attention, but as a practice deeply embedded in ethical conduct (“sila”) (Bodhi, 1995). McCaw (2020) refers to this understanding of mindfulness practice as “fat mindfulness”, which reflects a broader understanding of the term – a way of living, in fact – in contrast to the clinical thin mindfulness of Kabat-Zinn.

That mindfulness encapsulates such different practices and theoretical perspectives only serves to emphasise that it is not one sole thing, despite the common focus on developing a receptive and non-judgmental awareness and attention through training.

Wellbeing Within Mindfulness Research

Mindfulness research largely understands wellbeing in terms of an individual’s mental and emotional states. Historically, research has focussed on the potential of mindfulness practices to promote self-regulation to, for example, disengage individuals from behaviour and mental patterns that are unhealthy or harmful (Ryan and Deci, 2000).

A large amount of mindfulness research has examined the neurophysiological effects of mindfulness practices, focussing predominantly on how depression, stress and anxiety can be reduced (Crane, 2017; Crawford, Sellman and Joseph, 2021; Feldman and Kuyken, 2019). Such reduction may potentially come about through practices which change an individual’s thinking, behaviour and attitudes towards the thoughts, emotions and sensations they are experiencing (Fjorback et al., 2011). This approach largely focuses on the reduction of negative states and the development of mental stability, both of which are considered indicative of wellbeing.

In contrast, Brown et al. (2022) have considered how positive emotions contribute to psychological wellbeing using the PERCE (Presence, Engagement, Receptivity, Clarity and Equanimity) model. Their research suggests that positive emotions are positively associated with psychological wellbeing and can moderate the negative effects of depression and anxiety on wellbeing. This development is more recent and offers new scope for assessing and measuring the benefits of mindfulness practices on wellbeing.

Methodologies for Research

Various methods have been employed to measure how mindfulness interacts with wellbeing, often involving self-reporting scales and brain monitoring. In one study (Brown and Ryan, 2003) the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) was used to establish the quality of the mindful state of an individual over a period of time. The MAAS used 15 markers of experience and asked participants to measure their experience of these using a 6-point Likert Scale (1: almost always; 6: almost never). An example of one of the markers is: “I snack without being aware that I’m eating,” (Brown and Ryan, 2003, p5).

Regarding brain monitoring, Petitmengin et al. (2019) argue that Western science commonly assumes that measuring brain activity is sufficient to comprehend meditation and its benefits. As such, one study (Brown et al., 2022) used an electroencephalogram (EEG), which records the electrical activity of the brain, alongside self-reporting emotional responses to gain understanding of their experience of the benefits of mindfulness.

Mindfulness in Education

Mindfulness has gained recognition as a tool for supporting wellbeing in the last two decades, including within education (Brown and Ryan, 2003; Albrecht 2014 & 2019; Ager, Albrecht and Cohen, 2015). This has elevated it into a commonly accepted intervention in schools (Ergas, 2019; The MYRIAD Project, 2025) to support children and young people in a variety of ways: socially, cognitively, physically and emotionally (Albrecht, 2014 cited in Albrecht, 2019; see also Ager, Albrecht and Cohen, 2015), to potentially alleviate stress, depression, anxiety or pain (Crane, 2017; Feldman and Kuyken, 2019, both cited in Crawford, Sellman and Joseph, 2021).

In line with mindfulness research outside education, mindfulness interventions have been explored in educational settings predominantly through quantitative studies. For example, the UK-based MYRIAD Project (Albrecht, 2019; The MYRIAD Project, 2025) implemented a mindfulness programme across 100 schools, involving 28,000 pupils, seeking to investigate potential mental health outcomes in the light of national concerns about children’s mental health. A range of survey-based tools such as the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) provided a significant amount of data (Kuyken et al., 2017).

Looking Ahead

Something that I especially appreciate about academic research generally, and that reminds me of my experiences in India, observing Tibetan monastics – and also Monpa adolescents – practising the art of debate, is the inherent expectation that one’s understanding is questioned and tested by others. That really is a gift: to be part of a community willing to support and advance learning in that way – bringing benefit not only on an individual basis but also in terms of a collective understanding.

The research I am undertaking is built not only on my own personal experience as a practitioner of mindfulness and an educator; it also owes an acknowledgment to many other people, especially those fellow researchers cited here, whose contribution to this meaningful field of knowledge and endeavour cannot be overstated.